Chokepoints and Vulnerabilities in Global Food Trade

Policymakers must take action immediately to mitigate the risk of severe disruption at certain ports, maritime straits, and inland transport routes, which could have devastating knock-on effects for global food security.

Chatham House report Published 27 June 2017 Updated 18 May 2023 ISBN: 978 1 78413 230 9

—

Pedro Miguel locks along the Panama Canal. Photo: Gonzalo Azumendi via Getty Images.

Rob Bailey

Former Director, Energy, Environment and Resources Programme

Email Rob
X

Laura Wellesley

Former Senior Research Fellow, Environment and Society Centre

Annex 2: Examples of Chokepoint Disruption

Below we provide examples of disruptions and transit delays that have occurred in major food trade chokepoints since 2002. These examples were used to inform Table 2 in Section 3.4, which indicates the relative risk of disruption or passage restriction at each of the 14 chokepoints featured in this report.

The list of disruptions is far from comprehensive; instead, it is intended to be an illustrative overview of the heterogeneity and frequency of small- or medium-scale disruptions at key trade chokepoints over a period of 15 years. Our analysis classifies chokepoint hazards into three categories – weather and climate risk; security and conflict risk; and political and institutional risk – and further divides these into subcategories, such as ‘haze and fog’, ‘trade and transit controls’ etc. (see Table 10). The illustrative list of disruptions (Table 11) assigns each historical example of disruption to one of these 11 subcategories.

We identified and compiled examples of disruption through a desk-based review of news reports and open-source literature from industry, academia and civil society; in the absence of an existing framework for the reporting of chokepoint disruptions, there was limited potential for a more methodical approach. We believe that a robust, systematic approach to documenting chokepoint disruptions and quantifying their impacts on food trade is urgently needed to support the effective assessment and management of chokepoint risk.

A maximum of three incidents are noted for each hazard category. Key search terms were in English; foreign-language material was not included. Examples of weather- and climate-induced disruptions and of politically and institutionally induced disruptions are limited to those with a reported impact on freight operations. Examples of conflict- and security-related incidents, on the other hand, include attempted attacks and events that had no reported impact on traffic. The authors understand these incidents to be qualitatively distinct from those relating to weather and political effects. Terrorist activity, breakouts of armed conflict and state-led attacks on vessels are considerably less likely to affect chokepoint transit in the short term, but have broader and longer-lasting implications for food trade and prices (e.g. as a deterrent to commercial or humanitarian shipments, or as a source of upward pressure on transport costs and food prices if war insurance premiums are raised).

Some further general caveats and specific points merit explanation:

Scant and variable data on chokepoint disruptions limit the scope for a comprehensive review of events, both small- and large-scale. The majority of available information is anecdotal in nature, often reported by local news services or industry organizations and generally lacking much specific detail. The overview here should therefore be understood as indicative of the relative frequency of disturbances at each of the 14 chokepoints, and illustrative only of events significant enough to raise concern among mainstream media, agricultural traders or the transport industry.
The severity of disruptions noted varies considerably, both in terms of the scale of damage/duration of transit disruption and in terms of the longer-lasting impact. Without an in-depth assessment of the first- and second-order impacts of these incidents, it is not possible to gather a full picture of the risk level at each chokepoint. By differentiating between the nature of disruptive hazards, we can nevertheless get an idea of the differing risk profiles across the 14 chokepoints.
If chokepoint risk is to be fully incorporated into risk assessment and management frameworks within the field of food security and beyond, a more systematic and robust approach is needed to compile available information on past disruptions. At national level, a coordinated process involving port and throughput data analysis, industry engagement and information-gathering among infrastructure operators would likely yield considerably more detailed and complete accounts of incidents affecting trade.

Table 10: Hazard categories

Hazard category	Hazard subcategory	Hazard code
Weather and climate risk	Temperature extremes	W-T
	Flood and drought	W-F/D
	Storms	W-S
	Haze and fog	W-H/F
Security and conflict risk	Conflict	S-C
	Terrorist attack	S-T
	Piracy*	–
	Cyberattack	S-C/A
Political and institutional risk	Trade and transit controls	P-T
	Disrepair	P-D
	Unforced delays	P-U

* Owing to the often high number of attempted or successful pirate attacks – small- or large-scale – individual incidents are not included in Table 11. Instead we note below those maritime chokepoints where many instances of piracy have been reported over the period 2002–17.

Piracy is a pervasive threat to trade through the Strait of Bab al-Mandab, the Strait of Malacca and, to a lesser extent, the Strait of Hormuz; countless instances of attempted and successful pirate attacks have been reported at each chokepoint over the period 2002–17. Details of the frequency and nature of these incidents are provided by the International Maritime Bureau (IMB)’s Piracy Reporting Centre.349 The UN Office on Drugs and Crime also provides analysis of the incidence of piracy.350

Table 11: Examples of chokepoint disruptions between 2002 and 2017

Chokepoint	Year of incident	Hazard code	Brief description	Source
Panama Canal	2010	W-F/D	Flooding prompts temporary closure of canal.	CNN [1]
	2015	W-F/D	Drought lowers water levels, and restrictions on transit are introduced.	TIME [2]
	2015	W-H/F	Periods of fog delay transit and contribute to vessel backlog.	Safety4Sea [3]
	2016	W-F/D	El Niño-induced drought sees water levels drop and prompts draught restrictions through canal.	IHS Fairplay [4]
	2017	P-D	‘Unforeseen’ repair work results in three-day closure of canal’s east lane.	Protection Vessels International [5]
Dover Strait	2004	P-U	Fishermen blockade part of English Channel in protest over proposed fishing regulations.	BBC News [6]
	2008	P-U	Fishermen block key shipping lane in English Channel in protest over fuel prices.	Reuters [7]
	2015	P-U	Attempted crossings by migrants in Calais disrupt ferry and Eurotunnel traffic, causing a tailback of over 3,000 trucks along the major road approaching the Port of Dover.	Freight Trade Association [8]
	2016	W-S	Vessels crossing English Channel are delayed by high winds.	Press Association [9]
Turkish Straits	2013	W-S	Poor visibility during snowstorm prompts closure of Bosphorus Strait.	Reuters [10]
	2014	W-H/F	Heavy fog causes Bosphorus Strait and Dardanelles to close.	Maritime Connector [11]
	2015	W-S	Snowstorm causes closure of Bosphorus Strait.	Platts [12]
	2016	S-C	Attempted coup in Turkey halts transit of grain shipments through Bosphorus Strait.	Reuters [13]
	2017	W-S	Heavy snow halts shipping through Turkish Straits.	Reuters Africa [14]
	2017	W-H/F	Bosphorus Strait is closed due to poor visibility.	Hellenic Shipping News [15]
Suez Canal	2010	W-H/F	Heavy fog causes delay to transit.	Egypt Independent [16]
	2010	W-S	Severe storms disrupt shipping through canal.	US NOAA [17]
	2013	S-T	An attack is attempted on a container ship.	AFP [18]
	2015	W-S	Canal traffic halted owing to strong winds.	Al Arabiya [19]
	2015	S-T	Multiple bomb attacks attempted by Muslim Brotherhood.	World Maritime News [20]
	2015	W-S	Sandstorm prompts closure of canal.	Israel National News [21]
Strait of Bab al-Mandab	2015	S-C	All major ports in Yemen closed due to Saudi airstrikes.	World Maritime News [22]
	2016	S-T	Anti-shipping missiles are fired on UAE ship by Iranian-backed Houthi rebels.	Washington Institute [23]
	2017	S-C	Multiple attacks on vessels transiting the strait.	Washington Institute [24]
Strait of Hormuz	2015	S-C	Iranian patrol boats fire shots at a cargo ship before boarding and seizing it.	Reuters [25]
Strait of Malacca	2015	W-H/F	Delays to traffic occur owing to poor visibility resulting from haze.	Al Jazeera [26]
US inland waterways and rail network	2005	W-S	Grain operations along Lower Mississippi disrupted for weeks owing to damage from Hurricane Katrina.	Envision Freight [27]
	2008	P-U	Congestion on railways and competition for capacity cause backlog of grain shipments in storage facilities.	CBS News [28]
	2010	W-S	Rail services severely interrupted owing to heavy snowstorm.	US NOAA [29]
	2011	W-T	High temperatures cause railway tracks to buckle, creating ‘sun kinks’ and resulting in derailments.	Scientific American [30]
	2012	W-S	Grain operations at mouth of Mississippi River temporarily shut down owing to high winds and rain brought by Hurricane Isaac.	Reuters [31]
	2012	W-T	Heatwave results in ‘sun kinks’ on railways, causing derailments and delays.	Scientific American [32]
	2012–13	W-F/D	Drought reduces water levels along Mississippi, severely restricting barge traffic.	National Geographic [33]
	2013	W-F/D	Barge traffic on Mississippi is subject to a temporary halt and prolonged delays due to flooding.	Reuters [34]
	2014	P-U	Rail delays hinder grain shipments and cause backlog in storage facilities.	Wall Street Journal [35]
	2016	W-F/D	Traffic on Mississippi is halted owing to flooding.	Reuters [36]
	2016	P-D	Lock repairs cause 14-week closure of Upper Mississippi waterway.	DTN [37]
US Gulf Coast ports	2005	W-S	Damage to ports in wake of Hurricane Katrina disrupts grain operations for several weeks.	Envision Freight [38]
	2005	W-S	Operations at major ports are severely limited for several months owing to damage from Hurricane Rita.	American Association of Port Authorities [39]
	2011	W-H/F	Thick fog brings shipping to a standstill.	ICIS News [40]
	2012	W-S	Hurricane Isaac prompts closure of major ports.	Forbes [41]
	2015	W-H/F	Dense fog interrupts shipping for several days.	World Maritime News [42]
	2015	W-H/F	Traffic in key shipping lane is halted owing to fog.	World Maritime News [43]
Brazil’s inland roads	2008	W-F/D	Flooding and mudslides cause major road closures.	US NOAA [44]
	2011	W-F/D	Flooding and landslides destroy major roads.	US NOAA [45]
	2013	P-D	Poor quality of roads causes major delays to shipment of soybean harvest to port.	BBC News [46]
	2015	P-U	Truckers blockade grain shipments along major roads in protest against high diesel prices.	Reuters [47]
	2015	P-U	Truckers strike for second time in a year over high diesel prices, blockading key transport routes.	Farm Futures [48]
	2017	W-F/D	3,000 trucks carrying soybean shipments are stranded on road following heavy rainfall.	Reuters [49]
	2017	P-U	Protesters blockade major roads linking Mato Grosso to southern ports.	Reuters [50]
Brazil’s southern ports	2005	W-S	Strong winds cause Santa Catarina port to close.	IHS Fairplay [51]
	2008	W-F/D	Extreme rainfall and landslides close port of Paranaguá.	FBDS/Lloyd’s [52]
	2010	P-U	Lack of capacity at Santos port causes major backlogs along roads.	BBC News [53]
	2010	P-T	Port of Paranaguá ordered to close by environmental inspectors.	Reuters [54]
	2013	W-F/D	Heavy rainfall prevents loading of soybean shipments onto ships, causing backlog of vessels waiting for several weeks to dock.	Wharton Business School [55]
	2013	P-U	Lack of capacity at major port delays shipments.	Neptune Shipping Agency [56]
	2013	P-D	Fire at Santos destroys a number of port terminals and disrupts operations.	Independent [57]
	2014	W-H/F	Fog causes Santos port to close for 32 hours.	Port Finance International [58]
	2015	W-S	Powerful waves prompt major port to close its operations.	JOC [59]
	2015	P-D	Fire at Santos port prevents access for trucks.	Reuters [60]
	2016	P-D	Fire damages infrastructure and blocks access to Santos port.	Reuters [61]
	2016	P-U	Dockworker strikes disrupt operations at Santos port.	LinkedIn [62]
	2016	W-S	Rough seas cause Santos port to close.	JOC [63]
	2016	W-F/D	Flooding closes Santos port.	JOC [64]
	2016	W-H/F	Dense fog delays grain-handling operations at Santos port.	JOC [65]
Black Sea rail network	2009	W-F/D	Flooding causes serious damage and delays to rail infrastructure and operations in Ukraine and Romania.	Railway Pro [66]
	2011	P-U	Rail shipments of grain are temporarily suspended owing to backlogs at port.	Agrimoney [67]
	2012	W-F/D	Grain rail shipments en route to Russian port of Novorossiysk are halted by flooding.	Reuters [68]
Chokepoint	Year of incident	Hazard code	Brief description	Source
	2014	W-S	Heavy snowfall causes delays to rail operations in Romania.	Sky News [69]
	2014	P-T	Russia limits grain rail loadings and tightens quality controls, interrupting wheat exports.	Reuters [70]
	2014	S-C	Armed conflict brings frequent disruptions to Ukraine’s railways.	WIIW [71]
	2015	S-C	Armed conflict severely damages Ukraine’s railways.	TASS [72]
	2016	S-C/A	Politically motivated cyberattacks are waged against a Ukraine railway operator.	Info Security [73]
	2016	W-S	Heavy snowfall disrupts rail movements across Ukraine.	Xinhua [74]
	2016	P-U	Bumper harvest exceeds carrying capacity of Ukraine’s railways, causing major backlogs and delays.	Bloomberg [75]
	2017	S-C	Humanitarian operations are disrupted as railways are blockaded.	ReliefWeb [76]
Black Sea ports	2008	P-U	500 port workers strike for 12 days at port of Constanta in Romania.	Eurofound [77]
	2010–11	P-T	Russia bans grain exports for 11 months.	Financial Times [78]
	2010	P-T	A de facto ban interrupts grain exports from Ukraine’s primary ports.	Port Strategy [79]
	2011	P-U	Russia restricts rail shipments of grain into Novorossiysk port owing to export backlog in which silos reach full capacity.	Agrimoney [80]
	2011	W-H/F	Dense fog closes Constanta port in Romania.	Nine O’Clock [81]
	2011	W-S	Stormy weather slows operations in Russian port of Novorossiysk and contributes to backlog along railways leading to port.	Financial Times [82]
	2012	W-T	Freezing temperatures and strong winds result in delays of two days for vessels entering key ports in Russia and Ukraine.	World Maritime News [83]
	2012	W-F/D	Heavy rain floods port of Novorossiysk and temporarily halts shipping	US NOAA [84]
	2014	P-T	Ukraine closes its Crimean ports to international shipping amid crisis with Russia.	Seatrade Maritime News [85]
	2014	S-C	Ukraine loses 22 per cent of its port capacity as a result of annexation of Crimea by Russia.	Lloyd’s List Maritime Intelligence [86]
	2015	P-U	Russia tightens quality control checks and delays issuance of documents at key ports.	Reuters [87]
	2016	W-S	Primary ports in Romania and Bulgaria are forced to close owing to heavy snowfall and strong winds.	Reuters [88]
	2016	W-S	Strong winds halt operations at port of Constanta in Romania for several days.	Independent Balkan News Agency [89]
	2017	W-T	Freezing temperatures, ice and gales interrupt vessel movements in major ports in Ukraine, Romania and Bulgaria.	Bloomberg [90]

Notes

CNN (2010), ‘Panama Canal closes because of flooding’, 9 December 2010, http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/americas/12/08/panama.canal.closed (accessed 8 Jun. 2017).
Feeney, N. (2015), ‘Panama Canal to Place Limits on Shipping Due to El Niño Drought’, TIME, 11 August 2015, http://time.com/3992470/panama-canal-ship-size-el-nino-drought (accessed 8 Jun. 2017).
Safety4Sea (2015), ‘Panama Canal continues to experience high vessel backlog’, 10 November 2015, http://www.safety4sea.com/panama-canal-continues-to-experience-high-vessel-backlog (accessed 2 Jun. 2017).
Knowler, G. (2016), ‘Panama Canal to restrict draught as drought lowers water levels’, IHS Fairplay, 22 March 2016, http://fairplay.ihs.com/commerce/article/4264756/panama-canal-to-restrict-draught-as-drought-lowers-water-levels (accessed 17 Jun. 2017).
Protection Vessels International (2017), ‘Weekly Maritime Security Report’, 10 January 2017, https://pviltd.com/news-insight/news/article/weekly-maritime-security-report-10-jan-2017.html (accessed 8 Jun. 2017).
BBC News (2004), ‘Fishermen in mid-Channel protest’, 21 December 2004, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/kent/4113709.stm (accessed 8 Jun. 2017).
Reuters (2008), ‘French fisherman ignore aid promise and block ports’, 23 May 2008, http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-france-fishermen-idUKL2383584520080523?feedType=RSS&amp%3BfeedName=worldNews (accessed 8 Jun. 2017).
Freight Trade Association (2015), ‘Disruptions to cross-Channel freight’, Briefing Note, http://www.fta.co.uk/export/sites/fta/_galleries/downloads/transport-manager-2015/tm15_disruption_to_cross-channel_freight_0915.pdf (accessed 18 Jun. 2017).
Press Association (2016), ‘Storm Angus: crew evacuated from cargo ship as winds lash UK’, syndicated in the Guardian, 20 November 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/nov/20/storm-angus-strikes-uk-floods-battering-winds (accessed 8 Jun. 2017).
Reuters (2013), ‘Snowstorm forces Turkish straits to close, flights cancelled’, 8 January 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-straits-idUSBRE9070BD20130108 (accessed 8 Jun. 2017).
Maritime Connector (2014), ‘Heavy fog shuts two Turkish straits to shipping traffic’, 20 February 2014, http://maritime-connector.com/news/security-and-piracy/heavy-fog-shuts-two-turkish-straits-to-shipping-traffic (accessed 8 Jun. 2017).
Platts (2015), ‘Bosporus Strait, port of Novorossiisk shut due to bad weather’, 17 February 2015, https://www.platts.com/latest-news/shipping/london/bosporus-strait-port-of-novorossiisk-shut-due-26014981 (accessed 8 Jun. 2017).
Yackley, A. J. (2016), ‘Turkey reopens key route for oil, grains transit after coup attempt’, Reuters, 16 July 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-security-shipping-idUSKCN0ZW078?il=0 (accessed 8 Jun. 2017).
Reuters Africa (2017), ‘Turkish straits closed to transit shipping due to heavy snow’, 7 January 2017, http://af.reuters.com/article/energyOilNews/idAFL5N1EX04R (accessed 8 Jun. 2017).
Hellenic Shipping News (2017), ‘Tankers: Turkey’s Bosporous Strait re-opened after brief closure’, 27 January 2017, http://www.hellenicshippingnews.com/tankers-turkeys-bosporous-strait-re-opened-after-brief-closure (accessed 8 Jun. 2017).
Egypt Independent (2010), ‘Fog brings Suez Canal to traffic to temporary standstill’, 5 December 2010, http://www.egyptindependent.com/fog-brings-suez-canal-traffic-temporary-standstill (accessed 8 Jun. 2017).
US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (2010), ‘Global Hazards – December 2010’, National Centers for Environmental Information, https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sotc/hazards/201012 (accessed 8 Jun. 2017).
AFP (2013), ‘Failed ‘terrorist’ attack on Suez Canal ship’, syndicated in the Telegraph, 1 September 2013, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/10278671/Failed-terrorist-attack-on-Suez-Canal-ship.html (accessed 10 Jun. 2017).
Al Arabiya (2015), ‘Storm Yohan lashes Mideast, shuts Suez Canal’, 12 February 2015, http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2015/02/12/Storm-Yohan-lashes-Mideast-shuts-Suez-Canal-.html (accessed 8 Jun. 2017).
World Maritime News (2015), ‘Egyptian Authorities Thwart Attack on Suez Canal’, 7 July 2015 http://worldmaritimenews.com/archives/165768/egyptian-authorities-thwart-attack-on-suez-canal (accessed 10 Jun. 2017).
Israel National News (2015), ‘Middle East Sandstorm Shuts Down Suez Canal’, 2 November 2015, http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/191224 (accessed 8 Jun. 2017).
World Maritime News (2015), ‘Yemen Shuts Down Ports amid Air Strikes’, 27 March 2015, http://worldmaritimenews.com/archives/155943/yemen-shuts-down-ports-amid-air-strikes (accessed 10 Jun. 2017).
Washington Institute (2016), ‘Houthi Antishipping Attacks in the Bab al-Mandab Strait’, 6 October 2016, http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/houthi-antishipping-attacks-in-the-bab-al-mandab-strait (accessed 10 Jun. 2017).
Vaughan, J. and Henderson, S. (2017), ‘Bab al-Mandab Shipping Chokepoint Under Threat’, Washington Institute, 1 March 2017, http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/bab-al-mandab-shipping-chokepoint-under-threat (accessed 21 Jun. 2017).
Browning, N. and Alexander, D. (2015), ‘Iranian Revolutionary Guards seize cargo ship in Gulf’, Reuters, 28 April 2015, http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-iran-usa-ship-idUKKBN0NJ1QZ20150428 (accessed 10 Jun. 2017).
Scawen, S. (2015), ‘The true cost of Malaysia haze’, Al Jazeera, 23 October 2015, http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2015/10/true-cost-malaysia-haze-151023122841586.html (accessed 9 Jun. 2017).
Envision Freight (2011), ‘The Transportation of Grain’, http://www.envisionfreight.com/value/pdf/Grain.pdf (accessed 6 Jul. 2016).
CBS News (2008), ‘Transit Bottlenecks Derail Grain Exports’, 25 August 2008, http://www.cbsnews.com/news/transit-bottlenecks-derail-grain-exports (accessed 10 Jun. 2017).
US NOAA (2010), ‘Global Hazards – December 2010’, National Centers for Environmental Information, https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sotc/hazards/201012 (accessed 8 Jun. 2017).
Magill, B. (2014), ‘“Sun Kinks” in Railways Join the List of Climate Change’s Toll’, Scientific American, 2 June 2014, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/sun-kinks-in-railways-join-the-list-of-climate-change-s-toll (accessed 9 Jun. 2017).
Plume, K. (2012), ‘Isaac shuts U.S. grain export from Gulf Coast’, Reuters, 29 August 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-grain-exports-isaac-idUSBRE87S18T20120829 (accessed 9 Jun. 2017).
Magill (2014), ‘“Sun Kinks” in Railways Join the List of Climate Change’s Toll’.
Rizzo, J. (2013), ‘How Drought on Mississippi River Impacts You’, National Geographic, 1 February 2013, http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/12/121207-nation-mississippi-river-drought-environment-economy (accessed 9 Jun. 2017).
Plume, K. (2013), ‘Mississippi barge traffic snarled by floods, accidents’, Reuters, 22 April 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-flood-rivers-idUSBRE93L1C520130422 (accessed 9 Jun. 2017).
Bunge, J. (2014), ‘Pain in Trains Falls Mainly on Grain’, Wall Street Journal, 2 November 2014, http://www.wsj.com/articles/pain-in-trains-falls-mainly-on-grain-1414972402 (accessed 9 Jun. 2017).
Plume, K. (2016), ‘Barge accidents rise on flood-swollen Mississippi River’, Reuters, 15 January 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-coastguard-allision-neworleans-idUSKCN0UT2BT (accessed 9 Jun. 2017).
Kennedy, M. (2016), ‘Upper Mississippi River, Columbia-Snake River Close Until Spring’, DTN, 19 December 2016, https://www.dtnpf.com/agriculture/web/ag/perspectives/blogs/market-matters-blog/blog-post/2016/12/19/upper-mississippi-river-columbia (accessed 10 Jun. 2017).
Envision Freight (2011), ‘The Transportation of Grain’.
American Association of Port Authorities (AAPA) (2005), ‘Hurricane-Affected U.S. Gulf Coast Ports Coming Back Strong’, 21 December 2005, http://www.aapa-ports.org/advocating/PRdetail.aspx?itemnumber=1452 (accessed 9 Jun. 2017).
ICIS News (2011), ‘Fog stops more vessel traffic in east Texas ports and channels’, 15 December 2011, https://www.icis.com/resources/news/2011/12/15/9517028/fog-stops-more-vessel-traffic-in-east-texas-ports-and-channels (accessed 9 Jun. 2017).
Savitz, E. (2012), ‘Hurricane Isaac: Lessons For The Global Supply Chain’, Forbes, 31 August 2012, https://www.forbes.com/sites/ciocentral/2012/08/31/hurricane-isaac-lessons-for-the-global-supply-chain (accessed 8 Jun 2017).
World Maritime News (2015), ‘Over 60 Ships Delayed amid Closure of Houston Channel’, 22 January 2015, http://worldmaritimenews.com/archives/150162/over-60-ships-delayed-amid-closure-of-houston-channel (accessed 8 Jun. 2017).
World Maritime News (2015), ‘Vessel Traffic Continues as Fog Clears in Houston’, 1 December 2015, http://worldmaritimenews.com/archives/177801/vessel-traffic-continues-as-fog-clears-in-houston (accessed 9 Jun 2017).
US NOAA (2008), ‘Global Hazards – November 2008’, https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sotc/hazards/200811 (accessed 9 Jun. 2017).
US NOAA (2011), ‘Global Hazards – January 2011’, https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sotc/hazards/201101 (accessed 9 Jun. 2017).
Carneiro, J. (2013), ‘Brazil congestion delays export of record soybean crop’, BBC News, 20 April 2013, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-22188250 (accessed 18 Jun. 2017).
Bonato, G. (2015), ‘Brazilian grain trucker blockade continues, threatens harvest’, Reuters, 20 February 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/brazil-soybeans-blockade-idUSL1N0VU12R20150220 (accessed 9 Jun. 2017).
Burgdorfer, B. (2015), ‘Global Hotspots: Bird flu slowing exports, Brazil truckers strike’, Farm Futures, 1 May 2015, http://www.farmfutures.com/story-global-hotspots-bird-flu-slowing-exports-brazil-truckers-strike-24-126824 (accessed 18 Jun. 2017).
Bonato, G. (2017), ‘Thousands of soy trucks stranded on swamped Amazon highway in Brazil’, Reuters, 1 March 2017, http://uk.reuters.com/article/us-brazil-soybeans-road-idUKKBN1685AN (accessed 17 Jun. 2017).
Bonato, G. (2017), ‘Weak road freights in Brazil anger truckers, benefit soybean crop’, Reuters, 18 January 2017, http://uk.reuters.com/article/brazil-soybean-logistics-idUKL1N1F81WF (accessed 18 Jun. 2017).
IHS Fairplay (2005), ‘Winds close Brazilian ports’, 11 August 2005, http://fairplay.ihs.com/ports/article/4189046/winds-close-brazilian-ports (accessed 10 Jun. 2017).
Marengo, J. A. (undated), Climate Change and Extreme Events in Brazil, FBDS/Lloyd’s, www.lloyds.com/~/media/f032df0f232f44be81c5b0827c4d91fd.ashx (accessed 27 Mar. 2017).
Cabral, P. and Throssell, L. (2010), ‘Clogged roads and ports harm Brazil’s development plans’, 29 September 2010, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-11413890 (accessed 10 Jun. 2017).
Murphy, P. (2010), ‘Brazil’s No. 2 port closure ends, shippers puzzled’, Reuters, 9 July 2010, http://uk.reuters.com/article/brazil-port-paranagua-idUKN0926477820100709 (accessed 10 Jun. 2017).
Azoulai, D., Dunlop, H. and Kuettel, B. (2013), ‘Big Bottleneck: A Weak Transportation Network Is Hurting Brazil’s Once-hot Economy’, Wharton Business School, University of Pennsylvania, http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/big-bottleneck-weak-transportation-network-hurting-brazils-hot-economy (accessed 10 Jun. 2017).
Neptune Shipping Agency (2013), ‘Brazilian port congestion’, 25 September 2013, http://www.nsa.com/latest-news/brazilian-port-congestion.aspx (accessed 10 Jun. 2017).
Saul, H. (2013), ‘Copersucar blaze: Brazil fire destroys one of world’s biggest sugar terminals’, 19 October 2013, Independent, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/copersucar-blaze-brazil-fire-destroys-one-of-worlds-biggest-sugar-terminals-8891271.html (accessed 10 Jun. 2017).
Port Finance International (2014), ‘Santos: the cost of fog’, 11 July 2014, http://portfinanceinternational.com/categories/security-environment/item/1603-santos-the-cost-of-fog (accessed 10 Jun. 2017).
JOC (2015), ‘Brazilian shippers suffer delays after waves close Itajai port’, 24 May 2015, http://www.joc.com/port-news/south-american-ports/brazilian-shippers-suffer-delays-after-waves-close-itajai_20150524.html (accessed 10 Jun. 2017).
Reuters (2015), ‘Brazil Santos Port fire burns for 6th day; truck access blocked’, 7 April 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/brazil-port-delays-idUSL2N0X40EQ20150407 (accessed 10 Jun. 2017).
Reuters (2016), ‘Fire extinguished at Brazil’s Santos port’, 16 January 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-brazil-fire-ports-idUSKCN0UT1KD (accessed 10 Jun. 2017).
Phelps, G. (2016), ‘Uncertainty surrounds strike at Brazil’s leading port of Santos’, LinkedIn, 22 March 2016, https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/uncertainty-surrounds-strike-brazils-leading-port-santos-gary-phelps (accessed 10 Jun. 2017).
JOC (2016), ‘Santos slogs through backlog after closure’, 4 May 2016, http://www.joc.com/port-news/south-american-ports/port-santos/santos-slogs-through-backlog-after-closure_20160504.html (accessed 10 Jun. 2017).
JOC (2016), ‘Future of Santos dredging in doubt after flooding, closure’, 29 August 2016, http://www.joc.com/port-news/south-american-ports/port-santos/future-santos-dredging-doubt-following-flooding-closure_20160829.html (accessed 10 Jun. 2017).
JOC (2016), ‘Santos shipper woes mount as fog again closes harbor’, 1 August 2016, http://www.joc.com/port-news/south-american-ports/port-santos/santos-shipper-woes-mount-fog-again-closes-harbor_20160801.html (accessed 10 Jun. 2017).
Railway Pro (2010), ‘Railway transport faced with the flood threat’, 10 August 2010, http://www.railwaypro.com/wp/railway-transport-faced-with-the-flood-threat (accessed 11 Jun. 2017).
Agrimoney (2011), ‘Russia halts grain trains as ports strain to cope’, 15 November 2011, http://www.agrimoney.com/news/russia-halts-grain-trains-as-ports-strain-to-cope—3849.html (accessed 11 Jun. 2017).
Akin, M. (2012), ‘Floods damage Russian grain export routes’, Reuters, 9 July 2012, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-grain-floods-impact-idUSBRE8680SD20120709 (accessed 11 Jun. 2017).
Sky News (2014), ‘Romania Snow: Power Cuts and Road Closures’, 26 January 2014, http://news.sky.com/story/romania-snow-power-cuts-and-road-closures-10419851 (accessed 11 Jun. 2017).
Devitt, P. and El Dahan, M. (2014), ‘Russia’s grain exports stop: farm lobby’, Reuters, 24 December 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-crisis-grains-egypt-idUSKBN0K216C20141224 (accessed 18 Jun. 2017).
Havlík, P. and Astrov, V. (2014), ‘Economic consequences of the Ukraine conflict’, Vienna Institute for International Economic Studies (WIIW), 14 October 2014, https://wiiw.ac.at/economic-consequences-of-the-ukraine-conflict-n-60.html (accessed 11 Jun. 2017).
TASS (2015), ‘Donetsk railway reports $23 million damage during conflict in Ukraine’, 29 July 2015, http://tass.com/world/811329 (accessed 11 Jun. 2017).
Seals, T. (2016), ‘BlackEnergy Gang Likely Targeted Ukraine Railroad, Mining Interests’, Info Security, 12 February 2016, https://www.infosecurity-magazine.com/news/blackenergy-gang-ukraine-railroad (accessed 10 Jun. 2017).
Xinhua (2016), ‘Heavy snowfall causes traffic disruptions, blackouts in Ukraine’, 15 November 2016, http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2016-11/15/c_135829075.htm (accessed 11 Jun. 2017).
Choursina, K. (2016), ‘Record Harvest Spells More Trouble for Conflict-Hit Ukraine’, Bloomberg, 18 November 2016, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-11-18/crop-bottleneck-on-soviet-era-railroad-disrupts-ukraine-exports (accessed 11 Jun. 2017).
ReliefWeb (2017), ‘Ukraine: Checkpoints – Humanitarian Snapshot’, 14 February 2017, http://reliefweb.int/report/ukraine/ukraine-checkpoints-humanitarian-snapshot-14-february-2017 (accessed 10 Jun. 2017).
Luminita, C. (2008), ‘Container terminal workers get pay rise in deal following strike’, Eurofound, 8 September 2008, https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/sr/observatories/eurwork/articles/container-terminal-workers-get-pay-rise-in-deal-following-strike (accessed 11 Jun. 2017).
Gorst, I. and Blas, J. (2011), ‘Russia announces plans to lift grain export ban’, Financial Times, 30 May 2011,  https://www.ft.com/content/6b2bb096-8925-11e0-b342-00144feab49a?mhq5j=e3 (accessed 11 Jun. 2017).
Port Strategy (2010), ‘Ukraine ports hold up grain shipments’, 2 September 2010, http://www.portstrategy.com/news101/world/europe/ukraine-ports-hold-up-grain-shipments (accessed 11 Jun. 2017).
Agrimoney (2011), ‘Russia halts grain trains as ports strain to cope’, 15 November 2011, http://www.agrimoney.com/news/russia-halts-grain-trains-as-ports-strain-to-cope—3849.html (accessed 21 Jun. 2017).
Nine O’Clock (2011), ‘Fog wreaks havoc in traffic, shuts down ports’, 20 November 2011, http://www.nineoclock.ro/fog-wreaks-havoc-in-traffic-shuts-down-ports (accessed 11 Jun. 2017).
Kaminska, I. (2011), ‘Russia halts grain deliveries due to backlog’, Financial Times, 1 September 2011, https://ftalphaville.ft.com/2011/09/01/667346/russia-halts-grain-deliveries-due-to-backlog/?mhq5j=e3 (accessed 11 Jun. 2017).
World Maritime News (2012), ‘Severe Weather Disrupts Black Sea Shipping’, 5 February 2012, http://worldmaritimenews.com/archives/46305/severe-weather-disrupts-black-sea-shipping (accessed 11 Jun. 2017).
US NOAA (2012), ‘Global Hazards – July 2012’, National Centers for Environmental Information, https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sotc/hazards/201207 (accessed 20 Jun. 2017).
Seatrade Maritime News (2014), ‘Ukraine to close Crimean ports to international shipping’, 11 July 2014, http://www.seatrade-maritime.com/news/europe/ukraine-to-close-crimean-ports-to-international-shipping.html (accessed 11 Jun. 2017).
Lloyd’s List Maritime Intelligence (2014), ‘Crisis in Crimea: The Impact on Shipping’, http://promo.lloydslist.com/landingpages/ukraine-crisis (accessed 11 Jun. 2017).
Reuters (2015), ‘Russia adds new informal grain export curbs in 2015 – traders’, 13 January 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/russia-crisis-grains-idUSL6N0US2CD20150113 (accessed 18 Jun. 2017).
Reuters (2016), ‘Snowstorm wreaks havoc in Romania and Bulgaria, ports closed’, 17 January 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-romania-weather-idUSKCN0UV0F3 (accessed 11 Jun. 2017).
Independent Balkan News Agency (2016), ‘Black Sea ports, closed due to strong winds’, 17 October 2016, http://www.balkaneu.com/black-sea-ports-closed-due-strong-winds (accessed 11 Jun. 2017).
Jha, M. and Almeida, I. (2017), ‘Black Sea Freeze Hitting Major Ports Spurs Grain-Crunch Concern’, Bloomberg, 12 January 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-01-12/black-sea-freeze-hitting-major-ports-spurs-grain-crunch-concern (accessed 11 Jun. 2017).

349 IMB Piracy Reporting Centre, https://www.icc-ccs.org/piracy-reporting-centre.

350 UNODC Global Maritime Crime Programme, https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/piracy/index.html?ref=menuside.

Previous chapter Next chapter

Topic themes

Defence and security

Economics and trade

Environment

Health

Institutions

Major powers

Politics and law

Society

Technology

Regions

Africa

Americas

Asia-Pacific

Europe

Middle East and North Africa

Russia and Eurasia

Events

Publications

Become a member

The Queen Elizabeth II Academy for Leadership and the Next Generation

About us