Little attention has been paid to the way in which elite bargains perpetuate structures or institutions that harm populations by withholding access to basic resources and needs. Focusing on structural violence reveals the shortcomings of these settlements.
A political settlement may deter militias from firing at each other, but in many countries, such settlements have not addressed broader forms of violence, including the ways in which corruption can end up depriving citizens of essential goods and services, leading to lower life expectancy and higher mortality rates. To understand why elite bargains have not ended conflict for many people, it is necessary to broaden the understanding of violence to include the ways in which people are harmed every day.
Built into the social, political and economic systems that stem from elite bargains, structural violence includes the avoidable harms that cause suffering or death to individuals or groups due to their unequal position in society – i.e. those that are excluded from the benefits of the elite bargain. Defined by Johan Galtung as ‘omnipresent and insidious – often unnoticed and unchallenged’, structural violence is less visible than direct violence. It is not episodic – like an armed attack or explosion – but occurs every day.
Scholars have argued that structural violence is greater in frequency and impact on people living in conflict. One study found that the consequences of structural violence were 130 times greater than those of direct violence. Despite the less visible nature of this type of violence, proxy metrics such as life expectancy or sustainable development indices – not typically associated with violence – can offer insights into the true impact of violence in the everyday lives of people.
Perpetrators of structural violence are difficult to isolate. Unlike the perpetrators of direct violence, those involved in structural violence are not armed. Bureaucrats, businesspeople, local authorities, religious leaders or even civilians can harm people. A study of the relationship between bureaucracy, poverty and structural violence in India showed that it was not individual government agents but the political system in general that encouraged and reproduced corruption and poverty, resulting in harms for millions of people. For example, members of a corrupt elite who generate revenue from state funds but fail to redistribute those funds are hollowing out the state’s capacity to meet basic social needs, and, as such, perpetuate everyday violence. In this instance, the perpetrator is not a single person or group, but the political settlement and system that develops from it.
Perpetrators of structural violence are difficult to isolate. Those involved in structural violence are not armed. Bureaucrats, businesspeople, local authorities, religious leaders or even civilians can harm people.
A more holistic view of the violence produced by conflict is needed to augment existing international peacebuilding and stabilization frameworks. Figure 1 disaggregates violence into four quadrants, based on the direction and form. As discussed above, policymakers and researchers concerned with conflict have been primarily focused on inter-elite violence (or ‘horizontal-direct’ violence; e.g. stopping elites from fighting in a civil war). However, at times, they have also focused on elite violence perpetrated against the public (‘vertical-direct’ violence; e.g. stopping elites from killing protesters). Although less frequent, they have at times looked into elites harming other elites through targeted policies (‘horizontal-structural’ violence; e.g. the weaponization of judiciaries to target political opponents). However, very little attention or work has been done on the way in which bargains between elites perpetuate political structures or institutions that harm people by withholding access to basic resources and needs (‘vertical-structural’ violence). For instance, diverting funds earmarked for the health ministry to generate profit for an elite will deny people access to potentially life-saving treatment. Corruption across basic public services – from education to electricity and water – continues to harm people in many countries that are deemed to be ‘post-conflict’ due to horizontal- and vertical-direct violence being reduced.
